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We are trying to be very careful throughout this chapter to anticipate every possibility that might arise. As a result, the verbiage gets very dense. Think of the complete energy balance as a checklist, reminding you to consider whether each term may contribute significantly to a given problem, and learning to translate key terms like…

Generally, the strategies discussed in Section 2.14 are sufficient to simplify the energy balance. Occasionally, in applying the energy balance to a new type of system, simplification of the balances may require more detailed analysis of the background leading to the terms and/or details of interactions at boundaries. This section provides an overall summary of the details…

In principle, most real systems are unsteady and open. A few systems couple the unsteady-state operation with flow across boundaries in a way that requires simultaneous analysis. We illustrate how to treat those systems with examples of leaking and filling tanks. Example 2.15. Adiabatic expansion of an ideal gas from a leaky tank An ideal…

Several types of systems are quite common in chemical engineering practice. You need to be familiar with the results of their analysis and benefit if you memorize these results for rapid recall. You must simultaneously recall the assumptions underlying each simple model, however, to avoid incorrect applications. Example 2.11. Adiabatic, reversible expansion of an ideal…

Before we start several more complicated example problems, it will be helpful to outline the strategies which will be applied. We provide these in a step form to make them easier to use. Many of these steps will seem obvious, but if you become stuck when working through a problem, it is usually because one…

Several types of equipment are ubiquitous throughout industry, and facile abilities with the energy balance for these processes will permit more rapid analysis of composite systems where these units are combined. In this brief section we introduce valves and throttles used to regulate flow, nozzles, heat exchangers, adiabatic turbines and expanders, adiabatic compressors, and pumps.…

The development of the energy balance includes potential and kinetic energy terms for the system and for streams crossing the boundary. When temperature changes occur, the magnitude of changes of U and H are typically so much larger than changes in kinetic and potential energy that the latter terms can be dropped. The next example demonstrates how this is…

Notice that our heat capacities do not permit us to calculate absolute values of internal energy or enthalpy; they simply permit us to calculate changes in these properties. Therefore, when is internal energy or enthalpy equal to zero—at a temperature of absolute zero? Is absolute zero a reasonable place to assign a reference state from which to calculate internal…

Before we proceed with more examples, we need to add another thermodynamic tool. Unfortunately, there are no “internal energy” or “enthalpy” meters. In fact, these state properties must be “measured” indirectly by other state properties. The Gibbs phase rule tells us that if two state variables are fixed in a pure single-phase system, then all…

An open-system that does not meet the requirements of a steady-state system is called an unsteady-state open-system as shown in Fig. 2.5. The mass-in may not equal the mass-out, or the system state variables (e.g., temperature) may change with time, so the system itself may gain in internal energy, kinetic energy, or potential energy. An example…